first commit

README.md

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+# Learning
+
+Exploration a Rust Programming Language - (33 concepts) 
+And ETC.

Rust_Concepts/.gitignore

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+/target

Rust_Concepts/Cargo.lock

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+# This file is automatically @generated by Cargo.
+# It is not intended for manual editing.
+version = 4
+
+[[package]]
+name = "Concepts"
+version = "0.1.0"

Rust_Concepts/Cargo.toml

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+[package]
+name = "Concepts"
+version = "0.1.0"
+edition = "2024"
+
+[dependencies]
+
+[[bin]]
+name = "Ownership"          # the name you’ll use with --bin
+path = "src/ownership.rs"   # path to the source file
+# cargo run --bin Ownership
+
+[[bin]]
+name = "Borrowing"          # the name you’ll use with --bin
+path = "src/borrowing.rs"   # path to the source file
+# cargo run --bin Borrowing
+
+
+[[bin]]
+name = "MutBorrowing"          # the name you’ll use with --bin
+path = "src/mutable_borrow.rs"   # path to the source file
+# cargo run --bin MutBorrowing

Rust_Concepts/src/borrowing.rs

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+/* Rust Concepts: https://sociocyber.site/rust_concepts_v2.html
+   Concept: Borrowing (shared &)
+   Usage: read a value, without holding it.
+
+	---   
+	We call the action of creating a reference borrowing. 
+	As in real life, if a person owns something,
+	you can borrow it from them. When you’re done,
+	you have to give it back. You don’t own it.
+
+   Ampersands '&' represent references, 
+   and they allow you to refer to some value 
+   without taking ownership of it.
+   
+   & to indicate of the parameter X is a reference.
+   ---
+
+
+   Owner1 in this context means who (stack frame) hold a data in heap [MEM area]
+
+   Value can be shared to someone.
+   & (reference) means = i want share this variable-value to someone
+   
+   We can reference to a variable for get,read his value.
+   One variable can have many who want get his value. 
+
+   MANY readers and ONE value.
+   Many & (references) to somethings.
+   (many &refs allowed simultaneously)
+
+   We can NOT change reference.
+   We can NOT change value when want to read this.
+   & (reference) = not changeble, only readable
+   
+   &owner1 means = reference to a variable for get his value.
+
+	STACK (and his frames)	[CPU]				       HEAP     [MEM]
+	──────────────────────────────────           ──────────────────────
+	frame: main()                                ┌────────────────────┐
+	┌──────────────────────────────┐             │ "Borrowing Value"  │
+	│ owner1 : String              │   owns      │ 15 bytes, UTF-8    │
+	│ ┌──────────────────────────┐ │ ─────────►  │ [B][o][r][r][o]... │
+	│ │ ptr                      │ │             └────────────────────┘
+	│ │ len = 15                 │ │
+	│ │ cap = 15                 │ │
+	│ └──────────────────────────┘ │
+	└──────────────────────────────┘
+
+	frame: print_len( &owner1 )
+	┌──────────────────────────────┐
+	│ s : &String  (borrow)        │
+	│ ┌──────────────────────────┐ │
+	│ │ ptr ──► owner1           │ │  (read-only, no copy)
+	│ └──────────────────────────┘ │
+	└──────────────────────────────┘
+	  │
+	  └─► borrow ends when print_len() returns
+
+	frame: println!("{}", owner1)
+	┌──────────────────────────────┐
+	│ owner1 still valid           │
+	│ println! auto-borrows &owner1│
+	│ no & needed in code          │
+	└──────────────────────────────┘
+*/
+
+
+/* Arguments in functions creates a new stack frame 
+ with  pointer2 --> pointer1 --> Heap first address of "v a l u e"
+
+ Like it: add_word(arg1: &String)
+ &arg1 - new ptr -> ptr -> value
+*/
+fn print_len(string: &String) { // borrows  
+	println!("{}", string.len()); // Read reference (de-reference for get value) ptr2(&owner1) => get ptr1 (owner1) => read heap
+}
+
+fn main() {
+	let owner1 = String::from("Borrowing Value");
+	// change_value(&owner1); // Not allowed! We can't change value only READ.
+
+	print_len(&owner1); // borrowing, not ownership. Not change address in stack-slot for ptr (-> heap), make new ptr in stack (in new frame [ptr ──► owner1])
+						// ptr2 (reference1) -> ptr1 (owner1) -> heap ["Borrowing Value"]
+						// ptr2 (reference2) -> ptr1 (owner1) -> heap ["Borrowing Value"]
+						// ptr2 (reference3) -> ptr1 (owner1) -> heap ["Borrowing Value"]
+						// ptr2 (&owner1) -> ptr1 (owner1) -> heap ["Borrowing Value"]
+
+	println!("(Borrowing) {}", owner1); // not need reference. Why?
+	/*
+	STACK                                        HEAP
+	──────────────────────────────────           ──────────────────────
+	frame: main()                                ┌────────────────────┐
+	┌──────────────────────────────┐             │ "Borrowing Value"  │
+	│ owner1 : String              │   owns      │ 15 bytes, UTF-8    │
+	│ ┌──────────────────────────┐ │ ─────────►  │ [B][o][r][r][o]... │
+	│ │ ptr                      │ │             └────────────────────┘
+	│ │ len = 15                 │ │
+	│ │ cap = 15                 │ │
+	│ └──────────────────────────┘ │
+	│                              │
+	│ reference1 : &String         │
+	│ ┌──────────────────────────┐ │
+	│ │ ptr ──► owner1 (above)   │ │  <── new slot in same frame
+	│ └──────────────────────────┘ │
+	└──────────────────────────────┘
+
+	frame: print_len( reference1 )
+	┌──────────────────────────────┐
+	│ s : &String  (borrow)        │
+	│ ┌──────────────────────────┐ │
+	│ │ ptr ──► reference1       │ │  (copy of the pointer, same address)
+	│ └──────────────────────────┘ │
+	└──────────────────────────────┘
+	  │
+	  └─► borrow ends when print_len() returns
+	      reference1 still valid in main()
+	      owner1 still valid in main()
+
+	*/
+
+	let reference1 = &owner1; // save in new stack's slot in main frame a ptr to owner1
+	// let reference2 = &owner1;
+	// let reference3 = &owner1;
+
+	print_len(reference1);
+	// print_len(reference2);
+	// print_len(reference3);
+
+}

Rust_Concepts/src/main.rs

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+fn main() {
+
+}

Rust_Concepts/src/mutable_borrow.rs

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+/* Rust Concepts: https://sociocyber.site/rust_concepts_v2.html
+   Concept: Mutable Borrow (&mut)
+   Usage: change a value, without holding it.
+
+   ---   
+   We call the action of creating a reference borrowing. 
+   As in real life, if a person owns something,
+   you can borrow it from them. When you’re done,
+   you have to give it back. You don’t own it.
+
+   Ampersands '&' represent references, 
+   and they allow you to refer to some value 
+   without taking ownership of it.
+   
+   & to indicate of the parameter X is a reference.
+   ---
+   
+   For short:
+	[Only one Reference] (&mut) --> (mut) [varaiable]
+    ONLY Reference1 can modify mutable-variable1, not others refrences-N.
+    ONLY ONE MUTABLE reference1 (&mut) ---> heap
+	
+
+   What this means?
+   We can define mutable variable.
+   And.. ONLY ONE reference for this mutable variable.
+   Not two, not three, etc, ONLY ONE reference for ONE mut variable
+
+   We use this one reference to modify a varible value
+   For this we need:
+   1. Mutable variable - let mut var_name = value
+   2. Reference to mutable variable - type: &mut
+
+   So, How to crate a reference for mutable variable?
+   
+   1. Use type "mut" for variable.
+   
+   ### let mut variable = String::from("Value");
+   
+   2. In expressions(in function calls, when save into new variable) 
+   
+   ### Use a type "&mut". 
+
+   This means a reference for mutable variable => i can change a value.
+   let reference = &mut variable; <-- use "&mut [variable_name]". 
+
+   
+   P.S. Never write a "mut &variable" => uncorrect! compile errors!
+
+   For function calls as argument: 
+    - add_word(&mut var_name);
+
+   If we want describe reference type of mutable variable 
+   in variables definitions, function calls,.
+   
+   Then use this syntax:
+
+   1. let reference: &mut [TYPE]       * let model: &mut String = ... ... ; 
+   2. function(argument1: &mut [TYPE]) * do_some_thing_with_value(&mut value);
+
+*/
+
+
+
+/* Arguments in functions creates a new stack frame with
+  pointer2 --> pointer1 --> Heap first address of "v a l u e"
+
+ Like it: add_word(arg1: &String)
+ &arg1 - new ptr -> ptr -> value
+*/
+
+fn add_word(first_word: &mut String, second_word: &mut String) {
+	 first_word.push_str(" ");
+	 first_word.push_str(second_word);
+}
+
+fn main() {
+	let mut arg1 = String::from("Notebook"); // mutable variable, holds a value in heap
+	let mut arg2 = String::from("Model");
+	let mut arg3 = String::from("1012");
+
+	// symbol '_' in '_reference1' means = disable compiler warnings for unusable variables now  
+	let _reference1: &mut String = &mut arg1; //  Mutable Borrowing
+	let _reference2: &mut String = &mut arg2; // Reference to mutable variable
+
+	// We can create reference for mutable (mut) variable and put into functions
+	// add_word(reference1, reference2);
+	
+	// We can use this syntax too.
+	// "&mut arg1",. means a reference for mutable (mut) variable
+	add_word(&mut arg1, &mut arg2);
+	add_word(&mut arg1, &mut arg3);
+	
+	// let _reference3: &mut String = &arg1;  // ❌ can't borrow immutably while mut borrow active (but if type not setted, compile automaticaly set _reference3 as &mut)
+	// println!("{}", _reference3);           //  expected mutable reference `&mut String` but found reference `&String` 
+	
+	println!("{}", arg1); // "Notebook Model 1012"
+}

Rust_Concepts/src/ownership.rs

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+/* Rust Concepts: https://sociocyber.site/rust_concepts_v2.html
+   Concept: Ownership
+
+   One value = One owner
+   owner means -> who have something
+   
+   Ownership means moves ptr1's address into ptr2 (this happens in stack)
+   Moving structs from [stack-slots1] into [stack-slots2]
+
+   ptr - pointer (similar to pointer in C/C++)
+
+   Variable(owner) saved in scope, when runtime out of scope,
+   then the value is freed automaticly from MEM. (no garbage collector)
+   In rust garbage collector is not used. Borrwing & prevent 
+
+┌─────────────────────┐          ┌─────────────────────┐
+│  Stack – owner1     │          │  Stack – owner2     │
+│  (before move)      │          │  (after move)       │
+│                     │          │                     │
+│  +----------------+ │          │  +----------------+ │
+│  | ptr → heap "V" | │  move →  │  | ptr → heap "V" | │
+│  | len = 5        | │          │  | len = 5        | │
+│  | cap = 5        | │          │  | cap = 5        | │
+│  +----------------+ │          │  +----------------+ │
+└─────────────────────┘          └─────────────────────┘
+
+Heap (single allocation)
+┌───────────────────────────────────────┐
+│ 0xABCDEF00:  V a l u e …              │
+└───────────────────────────────────────┘
+
+
+
+Scope ends → drop(owner2) → memory freed
+
+Heap (single allocation - out of scope)
+┌───────────────────────────────────────┐
+│ 0xABCDEF00:  …                        │
+└───────────────────────────────────────┘
+*/
+
+
+fn main() {
+	let owner1 = String::from("Value"); // ? save "Value" in heap, stack (owner1) → ptr → heap "hello" 
+	/* 
+		    stack-slots1
+		+-------------------+   ← lower address (stack grows down)
+		| ptr → heap "hello"|   ← 8 bytes 
+		| len = 5           |   ← 8 bytes
+		| cap = 5           |   ← 8 bytes
+		+-------------------+   ← higher address 
+
+		heap address (ptr) →  [ 'h' 'e' 'l' 'l' 'o' ]
+	*/
+
+	let owner2 = owner1; // owershipped! owner1 moves (ship) his value into owner1. stack (owner2) → ptr (getted from owner1) → heap "hello" 
+	
+	/*
+	    stack slot (owner2) ──► ptr → heap "hello"
+	    stack slot (owner1) ──► ptr <moved>  // not can be used,
+		
+			stack-slots2				 stack-slots1
+	      owner2 (on stack)           owner1 (on stack)
+		+-------------------+       +-----------------------+
+		| ptr → heap "hello"|       | <ptr moved / invalid> | 
+		| len = 5           |       + <len moved / invalid> + 
+		| cap = 5           |       | <cap moved / invalid> | 
+		+-------------------+       +-----------------------+
+
+		heap address (ptr) →  None (not valid)
+	*/
+
+	// println!("{}", owner1); // owner1 no longer valid, not ptr. (Compiler thinks this about as 'None') 
+                              // Not actual address for heap, where value
+
+	println!("(Ownership) owner1 -> owner2; owner2 = {}", owner2);
+} // owner2 Out of the scope, drops owner2 for free a heap 
+
+
+// When owner2 and owner1 go out of scope, they will both try to free the same memory. This is known as a double free error and is one of the memory safety bugs we mentioned previously. Freeing memory twice can lead to memory corruption, which can potentially lead to security vulnerabilities.
+// To ensure memory safety, after the line let owner2 = owner1;, Rust considers owner1 as no longer valid.
+// Therefore, Rust doesn’t need to free anything when owner1 goes out of scope.